On The Truth §
- The truth is not always ambiguous. It need not exist in the middle ground, and sometimes the truth may be as simple as having two possibilities.
- The truth is not always precise or clean.
- Sometimes experts will argue about it, but that does not make the field of knowledge bogus.
- The truth is not always found within numbers.
- That said, qualitative anecdotes also require evidence.
- Consider and Exhaust all possibilities. Sometimes, we might simply be dealing with a false dilemma. Other times, we may in fact, just be dealing with a dilemma.
- Also factor in that what is said to be true may be based on unknown unknowns.
- The truth is not necessarily in line with or is justifiable by :
- One’s own belief systems.
- The authorities
- One’s moral compass
- One’s appeal to emotions
- One’s notion of absurdity / normalcy
- Common sense
- Ignorance
- Silence or Absence of evidence.
- What is is not necessarily the same as what ought to be. (see is-ought-distinction)
What to Look out For §
Analogies and Comparisons §
- Ensure the objects involved in the analogy actually have a sound reason to be analogous.
- Ensure there is sufficient information to make that analogy.
- Avoid Reification. Abstract concepts are not real or concrete things.
Definitions §
- Definitions should be:
- Precise and Unambiguous.
- Objective and not trying to appeal to emotions.
- Within context.
- Not subtly used in a bait and switch.
- Non-recursive—that is, a concept should not be explained in terms of itself.
- Reflective of the whole truth and not simply snippets of the truth.
Premises §
- Avoid the following:
- Begging the Question - the conclusion of the argument supports itself as the premise.
- Circular Reasoning - begin with the conclusion and end with the premises.
- Fallacy of Many Questions - a question that presupposes something unproven. Often this involves a loaded question that proves something as true regardless of the answer.
Construction §
- Arguments should be consistent.
- Avoid the following:
- Moving the Goalposts - refuting the argument because of “a lack of strong evidence” even though the argument has sufficiently proven the claim Essentially, it entails making a new “stronger claim”.
- Proof by Assertion - repeating a proposition many times
- Slippery Slopes - a small premise is argued to blow up to a large premise
- Thought Terminating Cliches - phrases which ultimately serve to end the argument without proving or disproving the point.
- Ignoratio elenchi - the argument may be correct but it should be relevant to the conclusion (i.e., don’t miss the point)
Context §
- Just because it was applicable in the past doesn’t mean it is applicable now.
- Inversely, it may be the case that it is indeed applicable even now.
- Just because it was obvious now, doesn’t mean it was obvious back then. Keep in mind the information available to us.
- Never take or use things out of context
Generalizations §
- What is true for the whole is not necessarily true for its parts.
- What is true for the parts is not necessarily true for the whole.
- Ensure objects grouped together have sufficient reason to be grouped together.
- Do not Prove too much — that is, form a generalized conclusion to argue for something specific.
- Exemption to a generalization require justification for them being an exemption.
- In the same vein, do not ignore accidents or exceptions to the generalization.
- When making a generalization, make sure to include all the data. Don’t cherry pick.
- Larger sample sizes are better for generalizations. The scope of a generalization is an indicator of its quality. It should not be applicable to only a small percentage of the population.
Subjectivity and Perception §
- What others say is not necessarily in line with the unbiased truth.
- What is true is not necessarily in line with people’s intentions
- What one perceives as true is not necessarily in line with what is actually true.
- What is said is not necessarily in line with what is real.
Chance and Causes §
- A low probability does not exclude the possibility of something happening.
- Retrospective Determinism - excluding the possibility of coincidence. Just because an event happened with another, doesn’t mean that the event caused the other to happen.
- Correlation does not Imply Causation
- Just because things happen in a sequence doesn’t mean they are causally related.
- Causal Oversimplification - assuming there is only one cause for everything.
- Do not attribute to malice what can be attributed to stupidity.
- The Gambler’s Fallacy - independent events affect the probability of other events.
- Inverse Gambler’s Fallacy - on the basis of an unlikely outcome, the process must have happened many times before.
- Magical Thinking - false attribution of cause and effect (i.e., irrationality or cultural beliefs)
- Do not attribute a cause when in fact none such cause exists.
Red Herrings §
- These are arguments that are irrelevant and draws attention away from the original topic.
Ad Hominem §
- Attacking the arguer instead of the argument
- Circumstantial ad hominem - the arguer’s perceived benefit for advancing the argument implies the conclusion is wrong.
- Poisoning the well - bad information about the arguer discredits what they have to say.
- Appeal to Motive - call into question the motive of the proposer.
- Tone Policing - call into question the emotion behind the message rather than the message itself.
- Traitorous critic fallacy - The criticism is due to the critic’s own affiliations so any argument they make can be dismissed.
Appeals §
- The following are appeals to reason that are fallacious.
- It must be true because:
- The authorities say it is true.
- The proposer is accomplished.
- The critic has sufficient knowledge.
- Its premise asserts positive or negative consequences.
- It is natural or unnatural.
- It is new, modern, old, or traditional
- The arguer is rich or poor.
- The majority says it is true.
- By Association. Two thing share something so they are the same.
- It is dogmatically true or an unstated truism (ipse dixit)
- It does not come from an unbiased mind.
- It was commonly held when something else, also known to be false, was also commonly held.
- It can be inferred from one’s origin rather than the context.
- It is what ought to be (i.e., what is morally right)
- What ought to be is true (i.e., it is only natural)
- One can fallaciously convince the audience by:
- Emotion (i.e., through fear, flattery, pity, ridicule, spite or wishful thinking)
- Threats
- Appealing to the hypocrisy of the opponent (it is false because they do not follow their own claims.)
- Phrases and Tactics to look out for
- “It is not as bad as …”
- “I am entitled to my opinion”
- “Tu quoque / You too” - the statement is false because the proponent does not act according to it.
- “Two wrongs make a right”
- Nitpicking the trivial details of the argument.
- Straw man - misrepresenting the argument by broadening or narrowing the scope.
- Asserting a cause to explain some data (see Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy).
- Vacuous Truths - truths that are technically true but meaningless at the same time
Links §